At least three terms can be used today to identify Bible-based Christianity: conservative, evangelical, and fundamentalist. Undeniably, these terms mean different things to different people. “Conservative” is a general term referring to those who oppose liberal Christianity yet hold to the traditional doctrines of the Christian faith. The other two terms require fuller explanation.
Evangelicalism
The word evangelical comes from the Greek euangelion, meaning “good news.” An evangelical is therefore someone who proclaims the good news of Jesus Christ. Yet the term’s meaning varies by context. In Europe, evangelical may simply mean “Christian,” not necessarily doctrinally conservative. In the United States, however, it generally refers to those who uphold traditional Christian doctrines. The term evangelical has been more acceptable than fundamentalist, since it sounds milder and less separatist or legalistic. In the 1970s and 1980s, around 50 million Americans identified as evangelicals, but only about one-tenth called themselves fundamentalists.
Historical Development
Evangelicalism has been linked throughout church history with various reform movements—especially the Reformation and the Evangelical Awakenings of the eighteenth century. During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, liberal theology challenged evangelicalism strongly, yet in recent decades it has regained strength through its own universities, seminaries, publications, and mass media.
Historian George Marsden identifies four stages in evangelical development:
- 1870s–WWI: Liberal theology arose within denominations once rooted in evangelical faith. The Holiness–Pentecostal movements also emerged, alongside revivalism and premillennial eschatology.
- 1919–1926: Modernism came under heavy attack in the major denominations; evangelicalism remained mainstream Christianity.
- 1926–1940s: Evangelicals (or fundamentalists) were viewed as separatists, working mainly outside the mainline denominations through independent schools and mission agencies, migrating from the North to the South.
- 1940s–present: “New Evangelicalism” arose within the old fundamentalist tradition, spawning two new movements—evangelicalism and separatist fundamentalism. Evangelicals were more numerous and wished to avoid the label “fundamentalist,” though remaining theologically conservative.
Important representative organizations followed:
- 1941: National Association of Evangelicals formed to defend orthodoxy against liberalism but in a more positive, non-reactionary spirit than the American Council of Christian Churches.
- 1949: Evangelical Theological Society founded, uniting scholars around one core doctrine—biblical inerrancy.
Doctrinal Views
Evangelicalism’s central tenet is the inerrancy of Scripture, expressed by the ETS statement: “The Bible alone, and the Bible in its entirety, is the Word of God written and therefore inerrant in the autographs.” Evangelicals affirm verbal, plenary inspiration (Matt 5:18).
They uphold the sovereignty of God; the Trinity of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit; human creation without sin but fallen in Adam; the necessity of redemption by grace through faith; Christ’s substitutionary atonement; His bodily resurrection, ascension, and future return.
Views of the millennium differ: premillennialists expect a literal thousand-year reign; amillennialists see Christ’s return as ushering in eternity. Salvation is by grace through faith alone (Eph 2:8–9), not works. Evangelicals emphasize evangelism as the proclamation of this good news (Matt 28:18–20; Acts 1:8).
Evaluation
Evangelical institutions and scholarship have grown in influence, strengthening the status of historic Christian orthodoxy.
Fundamentalism
The term fundamentalism was first used in 1920 by Curtis Lee Laws, editor of the Baptist Watchman-Examiner, to describe those holding firmly to traditional Christian doctrines against modern liberalism, which denied biblical inspiration, Christ’s deity, and miracles.
Marsden defines fundamentalism as:
- Evangelical Christianity;
- Anti-modernist affirmation of the supernatural and biblical orthodoxy;
- Militantly opposed to modernism and secularism—a “fighting anti-modernist evangelicalism.”
Bernard Ramm, more critically, describes fundamentalists as:
- Upholding orthodoxy with anti-intellectual, anti-academic, anti-cultural militancy;
- Practicing separatism from denominations deemed liberal;
- Equating Scripture’s words with divine revelation (verbal inspiration and inerrancy);
- Generally favoring dispensational premillennialism.
Historical Development
Historically, fundamentalism centers on the Five Fundamentals adopted by the 1910 Presbyterian General Assembly:
- Christ’s miracles,
- Virgin birth,
- Substitutionary atonement,
- Bodily resurrection,
- Biblical inspiration.
These ideas were popularized through The Fundamentals (1910–1915), twelve booklets edited by R. A. Torrey and A. C. Dixon, distributed in over three million copies, defending orthodoxy against higher criticism and evolution, affirming Mosaic authorship, the unity of Isaiah, divine inspiration, Christ’s deity, and atonement. Contributors included B. B. Warfield, C. I. Scofield, H. C. G. Moule, and others.
Leaders such as J. Gresham Machen (1881–1937) furthered the cause through Christianity and Liberalism and founded Westminster Theological Seminary (1929) after leaving Princeton Seminary’s liberalizing administration, and the Presbyterian Church of America (1936). Similar movements arose among Baptists, including the General Association of Regular Baptists (1932) and the Conservative Baptist Association (1947). Prominent figures like William B. Riley, T. T. Shields, and J. Frank Norris established colleges and seminaries to preserve orthodoxy.
Doctrinal Views
Fundamentalists emphasize the Five Fundamentals: full verbal inspiration and inerrancy of Scripture, the virgin birth, Christ’s deity and miracles, substitutionary atonement, bodily resurrection, and literal second coming. They reject higher criticism, evolutionary theory, and allegorical reinterpretations of Scripture. They affirm creation by divine fiat, a literal hell and devil, and separation from both worldliness and liberal theology.
Evaluation
Early fundamentalism made major contributions in defending orthodoxy but later became marked by harsh separatism. Though doctrinally sound, its combative spirit often lacked the grace and love central to the gospel.
Neo-Evangelicalism
Historical Development
The term neo-evangelical was coined by Dr. Harold J. Ockenga of Park Street Congregational Church (Boston). In a 1948 address at Fuller Theological Seminary, he explained that the movement separated from:
- Neo-orthodoxy—by affirming the Bible’s authority;
- Modernism—by retaining orthodox doctrine;
- Fundamentalism—by applying biblical teaching to social issues and engaging culture rather than retreating.
Theologian Carl F. H. Henry, founder of Christianity Today, criticized fundamentalism for its narrow, anti-intellectual, uncharitable approach. Neo-evangelicals, including Ockenga, Henry, E. J. Carnell, Billy Graham, and Bernard Ramm, sought academic credibility and social engagement. Fuller Seminary became the movement’s academic center, and Christianity Today its primary voice.
Doctrinal and Social Views
- Social Responsibility: Neo-evangelicals emphasized applying the gospel to social issues, not merely personal salvation.
- Separation: They opposed extreme separatism (as seen in Machen’s legacy), urging cooperation with other Christians where possible.
- Inerrancy: Opinions varied—some reinterpreted inerrancy as pertaining to faith and practice rather than textual detail, while others maintained traditional views.
- Science: Bernard Ramm’s The Christian View of Science and Scripture proposed harmonizing the Bible with modern science through “progressive creationism,” allowing for geological ages and limited evolution within divine design.
Evaluation
Neo-evangelicalism’s emphasis on social responsibility is commendable but sometimes neglects biblical cautions about partnership with unbelief. Its openness to critical methods and modern science raised debates over biblical authority. While broadening evangelical influence, it risked doctrinal compromise.
Neo-Fundamentalism
Historical Development
Over time, a new form of fundamentalism emerged—neo-fundamentalism—marked by secondary separation: avoiding not only liberals but also conservatives who cooperated with liberals. These fundamentalists criticized Billy Graham for his inclusive evangelistic crusades and opposed institutions like Christianity Today, Moody Bible Institute, and Dallas Theological Seminary for perceived compromise.
Leaders often associated with this trend include Jerry Falwell, Tim LaHaye, Hal Lindsey, and Pat Robertson, who framed secular humanism as the new chief enemy undermining America’s moral and spiritual foundations. Movements such as the Moral Majority reflected this fusion of faith and conservative politics.
Evaluation
Neo-fundamentalism maintains traditional doctrines but tends toward anti-intellectualism and legalism. Some groups promote “King James Only” inspiration and add behavioral codes to doctrinal statements. Its insistence on secondary separation fosters division and hostility among believers. True orthodoxy, however, should manifest love as well as truth (John 13:34–35; 1 John 2:10–11). Love must temper doctrinal zeal, especially in disputes over non-essential issues.
General Observations
Today genuine fellowship among believers remains limited, yet two positive points stand out:
- Both evangelicals and fundamentalists continue to believe, teach, and defend the traditional biblical doctrines of Christianity.
- Both have achieved significant advances—missionary zeal, revival movements (notably Billy Graham’s), growth of Bible colleges, Christian universities, and seminaries, and flourishing publishing ministries. As a result, more than fifty million Americans now profess to be born again, and the glorious gospel of Christ continues to gain public hearing and respect.